Over a thousand years old, Besakih Temple is known as the “Mother Temple of Bali” Perched on the slopes of Mount Agung, at a lofty 1,000 meters (3,000 feet) Besakih is the biggest and holiest of all the Balinese temples. Named after the Dragon God believed to inhabit the mountain, it’s said to be the only temple where a Hindu of any caste can worship.
Eighteen separate sanctuaries belonging to different regencies and caste groups surround the three main temples dedicated to Shiva, Brahma and Vishnu. To the Balinese, visiting the temple sanctuaries is a special pilgrimage. The mountain top setting gives it an almost mystical quality.
Steps ascend through split gates to the main courtyard where the Trinity shrines, dedicated to Shiva, Brahma, and Vishnu, are wrapped in cloth and decorated with flower offerings. There are are number of temples but many of their inner courtyards are closed to visitors. If travelling on your own, try reach Pura Besakih before 9am, when many tourist buses start to arrive, so that you can take in the lovely temple in the quiet Balinese morning.
The Temple
In Balinese word, temple is called Pura, which might be quiet a new name for the sacred place, where Balinese praying. Historical facts such as various inscriptions clearly mention such a place is called Hyang. Now the word Hyang is used to refer the holy spirit of ancestor. It was correct that original believe of Balinese as well as all ethnics in Indonesia had the worship of ancestor’s holy soul in various form of rituals. It is an interesting question to explore, while formal source is not available, we can just understand in the level of theory.
When Indian influence was spreading into South East Asia, the Sanskrit words become very special among the local. Many places were given Sanskrit name, such as kingdom, people, king, and even places. One name for a city is “Pur” such as Singapura, Sukapura, Amblapura, and others imitating the name of cities in India such as Nagpur, Rajpur, Kantipur, and others. The development of cities in Indonesia started by king palace, except commercial centers such as Jakarta, Surabaya, Balikpapan, Makassar, and others.
Hindu king from 11th century on, had been inspired strongly by Hindu tradition with it’s Sanskrit language. The story about world salvation “Avatar” might have became real example of the thought inspiring the king status in the society and heaven. King Erlangga of Mataram kingdom in Java in 1019 AD mentioned in his inscription that he was the incarnation of god Wisnu, so did kings in Balinese ancient kingdoms. The king is the center of culture, and was considered the one who able to bring the prosperity of the emporium and its society.
A thought among Hindu literature is also mention that this world is divided into 2 parts, those are “Buana Alit” and “Buana Agung” Buana Alit literally means “small world”, while Buana Agung means Big world, or with most historian’s terminology Buana Alit is called micro-cosmos, and Buana Agung is macro-cosmos. The thought further asserted that Buana Alit has the character of Buana Agung, or is given the characters of Buana Agung. This small world is identified with human being, or miniature of the macro-cosmos. So that is said that human being also has got divine characters. Sanskrit language is very good in expressing this thought, since it introduced gender. For example 2 entities have the same characters with different nature such as one is powerful while the other one weaker, they differentiate with gender. Nouns with ultima [ a ] refers masculine gender, and with ultima [ i ] refers feminism. For example “Putra” means son, and “Putri” means laughter, Dewa means male gods, and Dewi means goddess, Santa means peaceful in the world, and Santi means peaceful in the heard, and so on. So it might be from this ever living thought that the concept micro-cosmos and macro-cosmos had given a strong inspiration of the kingdoms. The king than identified himself as micro-cosmos, as the the miniature of macro-cosmos, or as personalization of all-mighty. The king was born to save the world with the human being, and got the divine revelation. Due to his absolute power, and his autocratic style of managing the kingdom, he easily identified himself with the story of “Avatar” or in Balinese called “Awatara”. The story of Awatara mentioned that god some time need to incarnate into human being to save the world from corruption, tyranny, and natural catastrophe. According to the Hindu literature there had been 10 consecutive awataras during the world history, and the 11th is yet to come when the world will really need.
Departing from the inscription those mentions the king as the incarnation of gods we could not find the indication about when the Hyang was changed into Pura, since almost all inscriptions before 1345 AD still mentioned the temple as Hyang. Although a very strong indication was found in Cambodia during the 7th century that the king was personalized in a statue, so did their family for the worship. It was also in Java some old stone sculptures have been identified as the personification of kings, which mostly found in all Candis (temple). An ethnic ritual in kalimantan called “Tiwah” give an indication how a person dead and given homage by his family and a chieftain by his people. It was also in Pararaton a manuscript written probably during the 13th century mentioned about the ceremony called çraddha. The ceremony is for the dead king with, something like cremation ceremony in current Bali. Some inscriptions also giving clues to the thought that when a king dead his body or ash preserved in a candi, such as the king is çinandika ….. means the king was rested. Based on these facts Dr. Stutterheim wrote that the ancient temples in Java supposed to be the co-memorial tomb.Archaeological excavations then was carried out at some temples, and was found like a pallets with 7 or 9 pallets. This is supposed to be the place of the king ash. But this opinion has been opposed by Dr. Soekmono on his dissertation “Candi It’s Function and Meaning” that the temple in Java nothing to do with ash of a cremated king. He supports his exposition with the tradition in Bali during building the family temple or other temples. He found that what is a sculpture of a king that was found in the temple, he asserted that this is only the symbol of king holy soul, while the ash was thrown to the sea or in the river. So he is against the idea of personal apotheosisme in Indonesia. So there is no indication that the king at that moment put himself as parallel with god. Based on above description it is not possible that the name of Pura was given by the king during the period of old Javanese kingdom or old Balinese kingdom the period that covers before 14th century.
If we see Balinese kingdom after the invasion of Majapahit on, since 1345 AD to 17th AD we found that the spirit of king as micro-cosmos was still alive, even in a stronger sense. One of Balinese king in 16the century called himself as Dewa Agung a title is truly means god. “Dewa” means god, “Agung” means The Great. So it might be the concept of this “king-god” thus grew fertile during this period. According to my opinion this thought was really developed and become the tradition of the palace. Since the king is the personification of micro-cosmos, as the miniature of macro-cosmos, then the palace is called Puri, and the temple is called “Pura” a two parallel entity with different nature. Since the king is the symbol of power in the world who full in control to the world and its contents, while the god is the all-mighty and controls them all.
Among various pura in Bali it can be grouped into: puras built by the king, pura built by the desa (village), and pura built by personal. In the kingdom there are at least 3 temples, one dedicated or located near the sea, one in the city (near palace), and the other one on the mountain (or near the mountain). While every Desa has 3 temples associated with Hindu Trinity besides many temples related to natural preservation such as irrigation temple, beginning of a river, and some considered sacred places.
Historical Record
There is many manuscripts mention about establishment, rituals, and the status of Besakih. This kind manuscript is called “Purana” The descriptions mentioned on the Purana mostly could be understood by human thinking, since many magical aspects were involving in the events. Relating to the establishment of the temple only one Purana giving description that is Markandeya Purana or is also called Raja Purana. Beginning the establishment of the temple is full of magical events. It is said that Besakih temple was built by a Priest from East Java, and he was the first who put the “Panca Datu” base for the establishment of a temple. The Panca Datu is 5 elements to be buried under the basements to protect the construction from evil spirits.
See from archaeological remains which are still preserved in the temple, it must have been a very old site, as old as Shivaitic tradition in Bali, as a crude linggas, the symbol of Shiva is preserved in one of the shrines. As already been known the practice of Shivaitic sect was very wide in Bali, and until now the Hindu in Bali still has strong character in ritual aspect. If we try to see the Shivaitic practice outside Bali, we will have the clear prove that is Prambanan temple which was built in 9th century. At one of the temple complex is preserved a manuscript mentions Sri Wira Kesari, and the area was part of his palace. We do not have prove that relate Sri Wira Kesari with the king mention by stone pillar inscription of Sanur. It is true that the king mentioned by the inscription in Sanur named Sri Kesari Warmadewa, from 9th century.
Careful observation on the linggas has shown a strong megalithic tradition. It was possible the site had already been a sacred place since very much older, but in what form of temple architecture would be difficult to know. Since most of the ancient temple remains in Bali in the form of rock-cut shrines such as Goa Gajah, Yeh Pulu, Goa Garba, and others. One reconstructed ancient shrine is at Pura Pegulingan, Basangambu near Tampaksiring, but the shape is modern Balinese Padma Sana, and it is not possible to put lingga or sculpture in the shrine. It was probable that the shrines were made in perishable materials.
During the kingdom of Middle Bali from 1343 AD to 17th, a kingdom established by Mahapahit, Besakih was mentioned as main temple and it was probably during this period the temple was added and rebuilt with many new shrines. The palace the beginning was located at Samplangan village near Gianyar, and later moved to Klungkung.
When Bali was broken into many smaller kingdoms, each of their king still considered king of Klungkung as the highest ruler in Bali, and claimed to have their origin from Klungkung. Since Besakih was a state temple of Klungkung, then each of the smaller kingdoms felt obliged to worship at the temple. Each smaller kingdoms and the main clans of Bali built their ancestral temple (Bali: Padharman Temple) around Besakih area, so the complex has become bigger and bigger. According to the inventory made by Institute Hindu Dharma Denpasar, there are 18 temple complexes with total shrines around 202.
See from the name of gods worshiped in Besakih there is clear mixed concept between Hindu gods, local believe and ancestors’ worship. Pura Penataran Agung complex is considered the center of Besakih temple with 53 shrines. Here are concentrated the shrines of Merus with superimposed roof-tops up to the highest with 11 roof-tops.
This temple complexes is a real valuable heritage for Balinese not just the value of religious activity, but have built up the solidity and close affinity among Balinese Hindu, although in the past was broken into more than 9 small kingdoms. Until now these small kingdoms was maintained by Indonesian government by forming a local government based on the area of kingdom in the past. That is why Bali now is divided into 8 local governments in the level of second under provincial administration. Although in fact one aspect has been made so complicated that is rituals aspects. Furthermore the purana associate natural changes with the incompleteness of the rituals aspects, or any shortcoming in elements of offerings, it is actually Besakih is most famous for their ritual compared to their architecture and historical values.
To have the idea some of the temple complex will be described in short below. This is only a short description on name and main feature, while the real fact is very complicated and impossible to describe within some pages.
Temple Maintenance
To maintain the temple in the sense of management a foundation has been established under the Center Hindu Assembly in Jakarta. The decision to manage the temple by Central Assembly was issued by Bali Governor by his memo no. 206/I/C/1968 dated 10 August 1968.
The foundation name is BESAKIH PRAWARTAKA Foundation. While the committees (Bali “Pengempon”) of the temple are those villages surrounding the temple, consist of 4 villages. According to the recordin 1976 these 4 villages have 3791 residents. Those villages are:
For daily maintenance works these 4 villages are divided into 8 groups which are in charge for each complex of the temple. All 18 complexes of the temple are divided into 8 permanent working groups.
